Polymer hydrogels are crosslinked hydrophilic polymers which are capable of absorbing and retaining large amounts of water. Certain of these materials are capable of absorbing over 1 kg of water per gram of dry polymer. The cross-links between the macromolecular chains form a network which guarantees the structural integrity of the polymer-liquid system and prevents the complete solubilisation of the polymer while allowing the retention of the aqueous phase within the molecular mesh. Polymer hydrogels having a particularly large capacity to retain water are referred to as superabsorbent polymer hydrogels (SAPs). High absorbency under load (AUL) is also a common characteristic of SAPs which in general is not displayed by polymer hydrogels having lower capacity to retain water. In addition to pressure, pH and other environmental conditions can affect the water retainment capacity of a polymer hydrogel, such as a SAP. Applications of highly absorbent polymer hydrogels include as absorbent cores in the field of absorbent personal hygiene products (Masuda, F., Superabsorbent Polymers, Ed. Japan Polymer Society, Kyoritsu Shuppann, (1987)) and as devices for the controlled release of water and nutrients into arid soils.
Carboxyalkyl cellulose materials and other carboxyalkyl polysaccharides are known in the art. Carboxyalkyl cellulose materials can be formed by treating a cellulosic material with a carboxyalkylating agent, such as a chloroalkanoic acid, usually monochloroacetic acid, and an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, optionally in the presence of an alcohol. Such carboxyalkyl celluloses are generally water-soluble. Various methods of rendering such water-soluble carboxyalkyl celluloses water-insoluble are known. However, these methods rely on a stabilization mechanism which does not include the use of any cross-linker; the procedure involves selecting a proper range of temperature and heat treating time to transform the water soluble cellulose derivative into a non-water soluble form. The resulting stabilization appears to be mainly due to physical rather than chemical effects. In fact, at certain pH values, generally from about pH 10 and higher, the cellulose derivatives become water soluble again. (Flory, J. P. Principles of Polymer Chemistry; Cornell University: Ithaca, N.Y., 1953).
Other methods for the insolubilization of carboxyalkyl cellulose materials include the heat treatment of the carboxyalkyl cellulose in the presence of excess carboxyalkylating reactants and by-products of the carboxyalkylation reaction, to provide a water-insoluble carboxyalkyl cellulose having desirable liquid absorption and retention properties and characteristics. In these cases, the use of accelerators and catalysts to promote the stabilization (i.e., permanent cross-linking), coupled to a nonuniform distribution of the degree of cross-linking, result in an insoluble material having a low swelling capacity (Anbergen U., W. Opperman, Polymer, 31, 1854 (1990), Nijenhuis, K. te, Advances in Polymer Science, 130, (1997)).
Cellulose-based hydrogels can be obtained via either physical or chemical stabilization of aqueous solutions of cellulosics. Additional natural and/or synthetic polymers have been combined with cellulose to obtain composite hydrogels with specific properties [Chen, H.; Fan, M. Novel thermally sensitive pH-dependent chitosan/carboxymethylcellulose hydrogels. J. Bioact. Compat. Polym. 2008, 23 (1), 38-48. Chang, C.; Lue, A.; Zhang, L. Effects of cross-linking methods on structure and properties of cellulose/PVA hydrogels. Macromol. Chem. Phys., 2008, 209 (12), 1266-1273] (A. Sannino, M. Madaghiele, F. Conversano, A. Maffezzoli, P. A. Netti, L. Ambrosio and L. Nicolais' “Cellulose derivative-hyaluronic acid based microporous hydrogel crosslinked through divinyl sulfone (DVS) to modulate equilibrium sorption capacity and network stability”, Biomacromolecules, Vol. 5, No. 1 (2004) 92-96). Physical, thermoreversible gels are usually prepared from water solutions of methylcellulose and/or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (in a concentration of 1-10% by weight) [Sarkar, N. Thermal gelation properties of methyl and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 1979, 24 (4), 1073-1087]. The gelation mechanism involves hydrophobic associations among the macromolecules possessing the methoxy group. At low temperatures, polymer chains in solution are hydrated and simply entangled with one another. As temperature increases, macromolecules gradually lose their water of hydration, until polymer-polymer hydrophobic associations take place, thus forming the hydrogel network. The sol-gel transition temperature depends on the degree of substitution of the cellulose ethers as well as on the addition of salts. A higher degree of substitution of the cellulose derivatives provides them a more hydrophobic character, thus lowering the transition temperature at which hydrophobic associations take place. A similar effect is obtained by adding salts to the polymer solution, since salts reduce the hydration level of macromolecules by recalling the presence of water molecules around themselves. Both the degree of substitution and the salt concentration can be properly adjusted to obtain specific formulations gelling at 37° C. and are thus potentially useful for biomedical applications [Tate, M. C.; Shear, D. A.; Hoffman, S. W.; Stein, D. G.; LaPlaca, M. C. Biocompatibility of methylcellulose-based constructs designed for intracerebral gelation following experimental traumatic brain injury. Biomaterials, 2001, 22 (10), 1113-1123. Materials, 2009, 2, 370 Chen, C.; Tsai, C.; Chen, W.; Mi, F.; Liang, H.; Chen, S.; Sung, H. Novel living cell sheet harvest system composed of thermoreversible methylcellulose hydrogels. Biomacromolecules, 2006e7 (3), 736-743. Stabenfeldt, S. E.; Garcia, A. J.; LaPlaca, M. C. Thermoreversible laminin-functionalized hydrogel for neural tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., A 2006, 77 (4), 718-725.]. However, physically crosslinked hydrogels are reversible [Te Nijenhuis, K. On the nature of cross-links in thermoreversible gels. Polym. Bull., 2007, 58 (1), 27-42], and thus might flow under given conditions (e.g., mechanical loading) and might degrade in an uncontrollable manner. Due to such drawbacks, physical hydrogels based on methylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) are not recommended for use in vivo.
As opposed to physical hydrogels which show flow properties, stable and stiff networks of cellulose can be prepared by inducing the formation of chemical, irreversible cross-links among the cellulose chains. Either chemical agents or physical treatments (i.e., high-energy radiation, thermal crosslinking) can be used to form stable cellulose-based networks. The degree of cross-linking, defined as the number of cross-linking sites per unit volume of the polymer network, affects the diffusive, mechanical and degradation properties of the hydrogel, in addition to the sorption thermodynamics, and can be controlled to a certain extent during the synthesis. Specific chemical modifications of the cellulose backbone might be performed before cross-linking, in order to obtain stable hydrogels with given properties. For instance, silylated HPMC has been developed which cross-links through condensation reactions upon a decrease of the pH in water solutions.
As a further example, tyramine-modified sodium carboxymethylcellulose (NaCMC) has been synthesized to obtain enzymatically gellable formulations for cell delivery [Ogushi, Y.; Sakai, S.; Kawakami, K. Synthesis of enzymatically-gellable carboxymethylcellulose for biomedical applications. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 2007, 104 (1), 30-33]. Photocrosslinking of aqueous solutions of cellulose derivatives is achievable following proper functionalization of cellulose. However, the use of chemical cross-linker and/or functionalizing agents provides a product which is not suitable for oral administration, especially in significant amounts and chronic use.